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Friday, April 18, 2014
Photosynthesis and CO2 Enrichment
Photosynthesis and
CO2 Enrichment
Tags: carbon
capture, carbon
dioxide, climate
change, CO2, CO2
enrichment, crops, food, global
warming, photo-respiration, photosynthesis, transpiration, water
use efficiency
The benefits of increased
atmospheric CO2 on crops are so extensive that a long article or book needs to
be written to do justice to the subject and to the results of thousands of
research trials. The improvement in photosynthesis efficiency at higher CO2
levels does not tell the whole story, but it is a good place to start, since
all plant growth relies on this process.
Photosynthesis is the
process by which plants utilize visible light energy (e.g. sunlight) to convert
aerial CO2 and water (from roots) into plant matter. This process also requires
phosphorus and nitrogen.
There are three
photosynthesis ‘pathways’, known as C3, C4 and CAM. CAM is unimportant for food
crops, being the method used by cacti, succulents and agaves. Pineapple is the
only food crop of any importance to use CAM, so CAM can be neglected for the present
purposes. World food security depends on C3 and C4 photosynthesis.
Less than 1% of all plant
species in the world use the C4 photosynthesis pathway. Of the 86 plant species
that supply most of the world’s food, only five use the C4 photosynthetic pathway,
of which only four are of much importance (corn [=maize], sorghum, millet, and
sugarcane) yet these four constitute some 20% of all the food crops grown.
Because of their high photosynthetic efficiency, the C4 crops corn and
sugarcane are favoured for ethanol production by those who want to produce
liquid biofuels rather than food, thus increasing food prices and poverty.
Those crops using the C3
pathway include nearly all cereals (wheat, rice, barley, oats, rye, triticale
etc), all legumes (dry bean, soybean, peanut, mung bean, faba bean, cowpea,
common pea, chickpea, pigeon pea, lentil etc), nearly all fruits (including
banana, coconut etc), roots and tubers (potato, taro, yams, sweet potato,
cassava etc). C3 is also the pathway for sugar beet, for fibre crops (cotton,
jute, sisal etc) and oil crops (sesame, sunflower, rapeseed, safflower etc),
and for trees.
At present atmospheric
levels of CO2, C4 plants are more efficient at photosynthesis than C3: in
absolute conversion efficiency of light energy to stored chemical energy they
are around 7% efficient, compared to 4% for C3. C4 plants typically use less
water per weight of biomass produced, and can tolerate greater water and
temperature stress than C3 plants. Accordingly, C4 crops are most often grown
in tropical and equatorial regions.
The advantage that C4
plants have in terms of photosynthesis does not always translate into higher
harvest yields, however, as only parts of the plant are edible. In terms of
ground use, C3 crops can produce some of the highest amounts of edible calories
and protein per acre: for example, potatoes and soybeans respectively.
C4 plants show a
relatively small improvement in photosynthesis rate with increasing atmospheric
CO2 above present levels; however, at increased levels of CO2 the leaf pores
(stomata) of both C4 and C3 plants increasingly close up, which also reduces
the amount of water lost by the plant (transpiration). Thus C3 and C4 plants
significantly improve their water efficiency as CO2 levels increase. This is
shown below for C4 (corn) and C3 (soybean).
C3 photosynthesis is less
efficient than C4 partly because of an effect known as photo-respiration, which
results in the loss (to the atmosphere or soil) of a substantial proportion of
the carbon that has been extracted from the atmosphere by photosynthesis. C3
photo-respiration increases under heat stress and drought, which is a major
factor behind the choice of C4 crops for hot dry climates. However, as CO2
levels increase, photo-respiration is suppressed, such that at double today’s
levels of atmospheric CO2 the efficiencies of C3 plants (in photosynthesis rate
and water use) are as good as or better than C4 plants. Moreover, at higher
levels of CO2, C3 plants can maintain efficient photosynthesis rates at considerably
higher temperatures than today’s conditions – their optimal temperatures for
photosynthesis increase.
The effect of CO2
concentration on photosynthetic rate at constant temperature is shown below for
C3 and C4 crops.
As CO2 concentrations increase,
the photosynthetic efficiency gap between C3 and C4 plants rapidly closes, and
at double today’s CO2 concentration (i.e. at 780 ppm instead of today’s 390
ppm), the photosynthesis rates are the same. Incidentally, the majority of the
world’s most troublesome weeds use the C4 pathway, and so have a competitive
advantage over C3 crops at current CO2 concentrations. At higher CO2
concentrations, competing for the same resources on the same patch (light,
water, CO2, nutrients etc), C3 crops increasing out-compete the weeds.
The photosynthesis rate
with temperature is shown below for C3 plants at today’s CO2 levels (Low CO2),
and at double CO2 level (High CO2).
The upper curve is the
same for C4. From this it is clear that at double CO2 concentration, not only
has the efficiency of C3 crops improved tremendously, but the temperature at
which optimal photosynthesis occurs in C3 increases up to that of C4. Thus the
vast majority of food crops will benefit hugely by increased CO2, and even more
so by increased CO2 coupled with warming.
A dangerous combination
would be increased warming without increased CO2. Since there is no proof
whatsoever that increasing CO2 is having any significant effect on climate (any
climate changes might be taking place by completely natural means over which we
have no control), but there is incontrovertible evidence that increasing CO2 is
positively beneficial with or without warming, then on the basis of risk
mitigation and precaution it is utterly foolish to be reducing carbon emissions.
As S.A. Cowling put it in Plants and temperature – CO2 uncoupling (Science,
1999, 285, 1500-1501)
We should be less concerned about rising CO2 and rising temperatures and
more worried about the possibility that future atmospheric CO2 will suddenly stop
increasing
The article Global
Temperature Change and Terrestrial Ecology in the Encyclopedia of Water Science
(CRC Press, 2007) has the matter stated correctly:
[It is a] well-established fact that CO2 is a powerful aerial fertilizer,
which when added to the air can substantially increase the vegetative
productivity of nearly all plants…numerous studies have demonstrated that the
percent increase in growth produced by an increase in the air’s CO2 content
typically rises with an increase in air temperature. In addition, at the
species-specific upper-limiting air temperature at which plants typically die
from thermal stress under current atmospheric CO2 concentrations, higher CO2
concentrations have been shown to protect plants and help them stave off thermal
death…[and] increase the species-specific temperature at which plants grow
best. Indeed it has been experimentally demonstrated that the typical
CO2-induced increase in plant optimum temperature is as great as, if not
greater than, the CO2-induced global warming typically predicted…Hence, [with]
an increase in the air’s CO2 concentration – even if it did have a tendency to
warm the earth (which is hotly debated) – …[plants] …would grow equally well,
if not better, in a warmer and CO2-enriched environment.
We will set out the full
range of benefits of increasing CO2 in future posts, but as an initial summary
the following is helpful by Vaclav Smil from China’s environmental crisis: an
enquiry into the limits of national development (M.E. Sharpe, 1993)
There could also be important beneficial effects, above all a roughly 30
percent higher crop productivity brought by 600ppm of atmospheric CO2 and
higher tropospheric temperatures. And the benefits may not end with higher
productivity. As photosynthesis is predicated on a very uneven CO2—H2O
exchange, higher atmospheric CO2 levels would significantly boost the water use
efficiency of all plants. This reduction [in water use] would also average
about 30 percent.
Other notable benefits or a higher CO2 level include lower
photorespiration (which would increase both the optimum as well as the upper
temperature range for photosynthesis), substantially improved symbiotic
fixation of nitrogen in leguminous plants, increased resistance to lower
temperatures, and air pollution, and a better tolerance of soil and water
salinity. A combination of these responses would mean that all major crops
would yield more in their current environments while using less water and, when
rotated with leguminous species, less fertilizer—or they could be grown in
areas considered today too arid for continuous field farming, or that they may
be able to outperform the current yields in those regions where precipitation
may decline…
Policies such as reducing
carbon dioxide emissions, carbon capture and storage, taking land out of food
use for biofuels (or onshore wind farms), increasing energy costs, grossly
inefficient and poisonous ‘organic’ farming methods etc all serve to destroy
the capability of this planet to support an increasing population. Behind this
surely is the stated neo-Malthusian and Green policy to wipe out billions of
lives by the sheer force of economics. As hunger increases, it will be blamed
on man-made climate change, and the screw will be turned ever more tightly to
introduce policies that will accelerate the destruction of mankind.
AGROSOL FAQ
Frequently
Asked Questions.
1. What is AGROSOLution made of?
AGROSOLution
is a mixture of finely ground minerals containing a high concentration of CO2.
2. What kind of rock is it?
AGROSOLution
consists of a composition of several rock types.
3. What is the application rate per ha?
Unless
stated otherwise in the application calendar, then the standard application
rate is 10.5kg per ha and growing season. The first application amount of 1.5kg
per ha should occur at the 3-4 leaf stadium. The following applications should
occur at 14 day intervals and each should amount to 3.0kg per ha. See Application Calendar
4. Is the pH of the soil relevant?
No! Since
Agrosol is absorbed through the leaf and its effect takes place within the
leaf, the pH value of the soil has no influence on its effectiveness.
5. What kind of effect does AGROSOLution have on the growth of
the plants? (Cereals)
Positive!
The overall plant growth is stronger. Better root growth (especially deeper,
denser, more complex rootage), stronger, more stable stalk development
(cereals) and increased leaf mass (more biomass).
6. What kind of effect does AGROSOLution have during
relatively cold and wet weather
conditions?
AGROSOLution
has a positive effect on the vitality of the plants. As a result, the plants
generally cope better with extreme situations.
7. Are there test results from other competitive products?
AGROSOLution
is considered as a new fertilizer technology and thus it is currently difficult
to make a comparison with other products. Consequently, there are no
comparisons available.
8. Is the pH of the water relevant? Extreme acidic or alkaline
range?
No, since
AGROSOLution unfolds its effect firstly in the interior of the leaf. In
addition, the product is not toxic and therefore calls forth no chemical
reaction.
9. Where can I buy AGROSOLution?
AGROSOLution
can be obtained from the local agricultural trade outlets.
10. Are there any official results available?
Since 2008,
the undertaking of extensive trials at leading Research Institutes has continuously been
commissioned. All experiments clearly show the positive effect of AGROSOLution.
Both yield increase and quality improvements have been confirmed.
11. For which cultures is AGROSOLution suitable?
AGROSOLution
functions with all plant types that photosynthesize
(all
c3 and c4 plants).
12. Can I omit or reduce the use of other fertilizers or
pesticides
during the application of
AGROSOLution?
Basically,
AGROSOLution is to be considered as a supplement which supports plant growth.
The usual fertilizers and pesticides should not be omitted.
AGROSOLution
simply enhances the effectiveness of other products.
13. Do substances exist with which AGROSOLution should not be
mixed?
Currently
there are no known substances. AGROSOLution is non toxic and does not change or
affect the characteristics or functionality of other products.
14. Can the implementation of AGROSOLution lead to the blockage
of spraying nozzles?
AGROSOLution
is very finely ground and with a maximum grain size of 4µm, many times smaller
than your nozzle (150 to 300µm). Thereby, the blockage of the nozzles by
AGROSOLution can be ruled out. You should naturally clean your spraying nozzles
after use in accordance to the manufacturer’s specifications, in order to
inhibit any sedimentation.
15. How well does AGROSOLution dissolve in water?
AGROSOLution
does not dissolve in water. Water is only the carrier. AGROSOLution
continuously dissolves in the inside of the leaf via a chemical reaction.
16. Do the weeds grow faster due to AGROSOLution?
All
previous experiments and practical results have shown that AGROSOLution has influence
on weed growth.
17. Do I need to keep to the application periods exactly?
Basically,
the application periods should be adhered to. Small modifications to the time
scale have no influence on the product functionality.
18. What if I need to apply later due to weather related reasons
or I need to miss an application?
Each
application helps the plant to cope better with the given conditions. If you
cannot perform all applications, then this may naturally lead to a less
positive effect on yield increase as if when all applications were completed.
19. Is AGROSOLution also registered for use in organic farming?
Yes,
AGROSOLution is registered for organic farming by Info X gen in Austria and by
the Fibl in Germany. AGROSOLution, as well as the entire production is also
certified by Bio-Austria. See evaluation.
20. What happens if I use too much AGROSOLution?
Basically,
this has no negative influence on the functionality. However, a fine white film
may become visible on the leaf surface. This will disappear with the next rain.
21. What happens if I use too little AGROSOLution?
Basically,
this has no negative influence on the plant. The AGROSOLution effect will
naturally be correspondingly lower then with the recommended dosage.
22. Does the presence of AGROSOLution have a negative influence
on other plant protection agents
or fertilizers?
No! Till
date, all experiments with commercially available fertilizers and pesticides
have shown no negative changes to their effectiveness.
23. Who is behind the company AGROsolution?
Company
AGROsolution was founded in 2008 by Peter Huemer-Hartl and Stefan Stassen. The
company is owned to more than 90% by the two families.
24. What is the aim of company AGROsolution?
Natural
growth and healthy nutrition are the cornerstones of our aspirations.
The aim is
therefore, to provide a product that meets these cornerstones.
AGROSOLution
meets these requirements.
•
Naturally increasing yield
by increasing photosynthetic activity
•
Strengthening the plants
own defenses
•
Better utilization of
available soil nutrients
•
Protection of natural
resources, particularly water resources
25. How long does company AGROsolution already exist?
Company
AGROsolution was founded in Upper Austria in 2008 after 4 years of product
development.
26. What is so different about the product AGROSOLution?
•
AGROSOLution is the first
field cultivation CO2 fertilizer and is therefore considered a new fertilizer
technology. That what has been successfully used in glass houses for years is
finally available in the open field.
•
AGROSOLution increases the
level of CO2 within the plant naturally, thus helping the plant to breathe.
•
The advantage over the
glass house technology lies in the very low financial requirement needed by the
application of AGROSOLution.
27. Is AGROSOLution expensive?
No. The
application of AGROSOLution leads to an increase in your profit margin, which
after the deduction of all costs, depending on culture, lies between €50 and up
to and above €500 /ha.
28. Can I also use AGROSOLution on small areas?
Yes. There
are no minimum size limitations with AGROSOLution application.
29. Why is AGROSOLution also suitable for use on golf and football fields?
AGROSOLution
reduces the requirement for water by more than 30%, increases the amount of
chlorophyll, strengthens root growth and improves Nitrogen uptake.
30. Can I work for company AGROsolution?
AGROsolution
is currently increasing internationally at an enormous rate. As a result, we
are looking for qualified employees in many areas.
31. Do the plants really grow faster?
Normally,
the plants do not grow faster. However, should the plants be exposed to
increased stress factors, growth rate differences are possible.
32. Is the yield always higher?
If you
follow the recommended dosage and application procedures, then nothing should
stand in the way of a yield increase.
33. Is it worthwhile to apply AGROSOLution in wetlands (wet
meadows)?
Since the
health of the plant will be strengthened, the application of AGROSOLution is
definitely useful. AGROSOLution helps by both dry and wet stress.
34. Where is AGROSOLution application of no value?
In
principal, the use of AGROSOLution is always useful, because it supports the
plant during its natural growth and in general, the plant is less stressed.
This makes the plant more resistant, allowing it to withstand stress situations
better.
35. Where does AGROSOLution application make the most sense?
On poor
quality soils, by water deficiency, in arid environments, in nitrogen-limited
sites, in problem zones.
36. Where do you find direct information about AGROSOLution?
The best
way is to contact us directly, or contact your AGROSOLution consultant in your
region (see homepage). You may also inform yourself by your trusted
agricultural trader. See distribution.
37. Is company AGROsolution also present at fairs?
Yes,
AGROsolution presents itself at the most important fairs in Germany and
Austria. Meanwhile, we are also present at International fairs.
38. Where does company AGROsolution have its production site?
In one of
the most modern filling and packing plants in Austria. The total production
process is certified by Bio-Austria.
39. Why should the fruit have a better quality?
Through the
application of AGROSOLution, the dry matter of the fruit increases, therefore,
less water is stored and more flesh is formed.
40. How much water do I save?
This is dependent
on the particular culture and the soil composition. University studies have
shown, that for example in sunflower, water savings of 19% were recorded,
whilst at the same time, biomass increased by 13%. Other experiments even
showed water saving of 33% by golf turf.
41. Who will guarantee an increase of my yield?
As with
nature we never know which climatic conditions we will face during the year, to
give a guarantee is not possible. However, meanwhile over 2000 farmers in
Germany and Austria have confirmed the effectiveness of the product. During
their applications, they also reached yield increases.
42. What if the yields do not increase?
It can
naturally happen that once in a while, AGROSOLution does not provide for a
yield increase. If you have once had such an experience, then please contact
us, so that we can work together in determining the cause. In the few past
situations where such a situation occurred, the causes were determined to be
unpredictable weather conditions or application error.
43. What are the benefits of the fertilizer technology
AGROSOLution?
All tests
so far, both institutional and practical, have shown the following effects:
•
Increase in yield between
10 and more than 30%
•
Increased stress
resistance- both dry and wet stress
•
Increase in photosynthetic
activity
•
Stronger and branched root
system
•
Optimization of the pH
value of the plant and better nitrogen uptake
•
Improved quality
•
Improved shelf life
44. Is AGROSOLution and its functionality unique?
Many manufacturers of fertilizer or plant aid
agents publicize similar benefits. The CO2 fertilizer for the open field is in this form currently unique.
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